Indigenous Philosophy and
Education Phase Three
Presented to Dr. A. Keith
Carreiro Northern Arizona University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
EDF 670-801, Philosophy of
Education
Maria Cordero Enrique
February 23, 1995
I.
Table of Contents
II.
Title of Topic Inquiry........................................... 1
ill. Rationale............................................................. 1
IV.
Literature Review................................................. 3
V.
Literature Response............................................. 4
VI.
Conclusion........................................................ 12
VII.
Reference-..;; ......................................................... 21
.
II. Indi£enous Philosophv and Education
The
Xicano Paradi£m KNO\VLEDGE which can
lead to
\VISDOI\1, which will develop STRENGTH, that
we may achieve
HARMONY within and without.
The focus of my
paper will be to examine the
implications of the above
paradigm in terms
of contemporary educational practices. I
will attempt to un earth the
indigenous philosophical roots from which this paradigm emerged. examining the
conflict and contrast with other educational strategies. As an expression of
my own individual
philosophy of education the paper will
relate research and introspection as a
process whose goal is the
enhancement of my
personal and professional educational goa ls.
III.
Rationale
The
theme of multi-cultural education invokes heated debate among advocates and dissenters. On one
hand, the loss of the cohesive and directing force of a culturally monolithic
curriculum based on Western philosophical precepts is seen as a threat to the
security and future of
society. In anticipation of the population trend which
will create a "white"
, ,
minority within a
national majority of people of color, the thrc t of loss irt psychological
position over the historical "colored" minorities looms
-<
before the heirs to man i fest
desti
ny. In
contrast, advocates of mul ti-cultural approaches
to education point
to the accelerating
globalization processes in
communications and economics as a sign of the end of the era of the culturally
parochial perspective. Yet,
perhaps both approaches
are not really in opposition. The technological revolution
advancing the global economy presents itself as a man i fest destiny for the
technological elite, except that this ti me frontier is not the new world continent , but the entire
globe. Much of what passes for
multi-cultural education is only the preparation of the workforce with the necessary
managerial skills to deal with the emerging global
markets. As the
proponents of "traditional" western education are
driven by the need
to maintain the dominance of the Europea n-Ame rican model,
multi-culturalism seems to be driven by maintaining competitive prominence in
the global arena for the same European-American interest bloc.
When
my son was in the first grade, he completed a school assignment of the type
wherein three objects are illustrated, and the task is given to identify the
one which does not belong. The three objects in this case were a trumpet, a
drum, and a tree. My son identified the trumpet as being out of place and was
marked by his teacher as WRONG. What this
·
teacher was unaware
of was that our family, being practitioners of an indigenous M:>":ican traditional form of discipline known as Danza
Azteca, had been recently involved in the process of making a
traditional drum.
The construction of the drum involves many
hours of work preparing and carving a special tree
trunk. Drum, tree, and
family represent a continuity of
identity and community that was reflected in my son's mind.
It is the perspective of this continuity that I
would explore in
this study. Yet, at the same time, part of
this perspective involves a
questioning of the educational
process that produced
my son's first grade teacher. The
skill of recognizing relationships is certainly at the core of
building a body of personal
knowledge, of becoming
educated. But what is the relationship within the
established educational system between the colonizer and the colonized? \Vill
indigenous peoples 0 the
only ones to see the value in asking this question?
IV. Resources Being Studied
A.
Literature Review
Several books selected for review, but
not limited to, include: God
is Red
by Vine Deloria. Kccpers of
the Earth by Michael
J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac, Aztec Thought and Cultl/re
by
Miguel Leon-Portilla, Tales
of a Shaman's Apprentice by Mark J. Plotkin, and Indian Givers by
Jack Weatherford. Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice
is
an excellent source
on the destruction of the
rain forest and it's peoples. Plotkin
spent several years researching the
native usage of
rain forest plants
and has translated his works into a
native language in order that this knowledge is not lost. In
phase two I wi11 out!ine other aspects of his study and how this and other
knowledge can
be used in our classrooms. Other related literature to be examined include articles on ecological, environm ental, and
multicultural education. I am trying to
locate more information on indigenous philosophies around the world specifically
the Americas in order to enlighten
myself to their truth,
value and beauty . Several
documentaries are also to be reviewed, specifically one on a tribe in South
America who have sent a message to the
the outside world, or their "
young er brothers " as they refer to us.
V. Literature Response
In order to examine the Xicano par ad igm, the origin needs
to be expl ored. The Chicano student
movement of the sixties expressed the
need for the formation of an " int ell ec tual
defense" of the people. This need was expressed in terms of
self-determination as opposed to
assimilation within the U.S. educational system. It was an era which for
the first time descendants of the Mexican people in the Southwest had broken
past the educational barriers to higher ed ucation.
· This generation of Chicanos would organize and unite under
the banner of MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil
Chicano de Aztlan). Invoking
the indigenous ancestral identity of Aztlan (homeland of the Azteca people),
the l\1EChA movement throughout the Southwest emphasized the goal of community
in contrast to individual empowerment. The concept was for the university
educated graduates to return to the barrios and pueblos of
Aztlan to put
.,._.
their sk i ll s and education to,vard the advancement of the
decolonization of the Mexican people. Simultaneously,
the MEChA movement pushed
for and was successful in implementing courses in Chicano studies in
various universities and colleges. At
Davis, California a Chicano-Indian university was established and accredited
\vith a curriculum which was based on indigenous
ident i ty and values.
On the occasion of the
California Statewide MEChA
conference in 1994, the
veterans of this era gathered
to reflect on
the history of the
student movement they hrld helped to build. These movement veterans, and other::i i:'1ey knew, had attained higher education becoming
lawyers, teachers, administrators and community
leaders. Yet
along the way something had been lost. something was missing. What was
expressed was not feelings or accomplishment but rather feelings
of hurt and betrayal.
\Vhile some had returned to the barrios to
sow a new generation, the higher
educational process itself had
overwhelmed a vast majority. This
vast majority had become assimilated into the competitive corporate culture
wherein an educational degree was a ticket into an upwardly mobile lifestyle. The assimilation
process accelerated during the Nixon administration when the term Chicano was undermined by
th e-gene ric "hispanic"
identification for all Spanish speaking minorities. As
one Mechista joked, the Hispanics had gone for the BMW and gave up on the UFW (United Farmworkers Union struggle). And by accepting the
hispanic definition,
further ground was lost by abandoning the indigenous history of the
Mexican peoples in the
Southwest. Still convinced
that higher education was the right
path, the veterans
now questioned themselves "But
to what end?" One movement
veteran having heard this discussion at different times and places questioned
the following of an
educational philosophy that they
described as follows:
EDUCATION \vould open up
ECONOl\1IC OPPORTUNITIES, which would lead to S UCCESS. v.1h ic
h would then translate to
PO\VER.
From the perspective of the collective history of
exploitation and disempowerment as a peop le, the
goal of achieving economic and political power for the Chicano community was
seen in terms of a common priority. The priority remained
evident after twenty
years. There was
a sense among the group of a
profound need for a re-evaluation of the context and process of the shared
experiences within the dominant system.
In expressing the
sentiments of the group, the movement veteran
stated "Would it not better to define our own educational paradigm?
A paradigm which would reflect our ancestral wisdom, upholding the knowledge
that guided our people
for thousands of years. Should we consider the formation of our
own educational paradigm? (Enrique, 1994) He offered the following to be explored in the
creation of our
own educational paradigm:
. KNOWLEDGE
which can lead to
WISDOM, which will develop STRENGTH, that we
may achieve
HARMONY within and
without."
Harmony is defined as " rhe
mechanism of give
and take so necessary to any
relationship" (Aceves, 1994). In addition, hannony is not free of conflict, quite the opposite, conflict is
a needed part of hannony in order to reach an understanding and consensus.
Conflict, when seen as a tool to achieve harmony allows us to enter
relationships that grow through
co nse nsus rather than se ek to clorninate. As I
begin to explore this
expression of educational philosophy I
will express m,y own philosophical
,... ... .
values and practices. \Vi thin the bounds of my topic
I will make connections to
the axiological concerns of philosopy. What
we value on the surface and what in the end we choose to put a value on are
often in · contradiction. \Vhat can be said of an educational system
at this juncture in time which fails to put
value on the preservation of life on
this planet? The endangered species list is not limited to plants and
animals but to indigenous peoples around the world who are . in the way of the bulldozer.· The air upon which
,ve depend for life is dangerous
to breathe during various times during the year. These
questions are a part of the axiological concerns of ethics. If we as teachers fail to address
the problems inherent in the valuing of technological
progress to the exclusion of ecolgical and human values, we are
not neutral, we are
"supporting Lhe ethical statu
quo" (Knight,
1989). Practical classrooms applications
will be outlined as
well
as research and literature in this area.
Throughout the western hemispere, one commonality
that exists among indigenous
people is how we refer to ourselves. We
call ourselves Mexica,"la raza''. the people. The Delaware called
themselves Lenni .
Lenape or "true men''; the Mandan or Numakaki means "people";
the Comanche or Nemene
means "the people"; and our neighbors the Yavapai or Enyaeva deem themselves the "sun people"(Deloria, 1973). Non
Indians were not referred to by color or race but rather by behavior.
Europeans were
re ferred to h
y the Lakota
as "washichu" which means "the greedy
one \vho takes the fat", meaning that
they not only took
what they thought they needed but rook everything
else (Redhouse, 1979).
The indigenous method of self
identification relates an important
precept of indigenous philosophy which is
the belief in
the brotherhood of all humankind, the two-legged. but not in a heirarchy over
the other natural life forms.
The Lakota express
it as ,;Ometakuye
Oyasin", which translates as "all
my relations'' and the Maya
say "In lakech", you are my
- other me. Both
are expressions of
an underlying understanding
rooted in
our
common humanity and shared history which is interwoven with a-ll ,
other living beings. Thus identity is not isolation, but instead seen in
terms of relationship. And education must proceed accordingly. Is this what Johanson with his "Lucy'' and the Leaky's at Olduvai Gorge are
proving? (Johanson. 1981). \Ve have arrived at the same conclusion but we have
come
to this understanding and knowledge through different paths.
The relationship of the people to the
earth is another important concep.t of indigenous philosophy. The earth
is not regarded in terms of a
commodity but as a living being
with a spirit. We may call her
Tonantzin (Mother Earth) or by another name but the recognition of a
relationship of origin and destiny e x ists. Recently the
theory of Gaia has
been examined by scientists.
This theory relates in scientific
research that the Earth is a living organism with the ability to
maintain a balance, or in other words the Earth like all other living beings is
capable of
self-preservation. Western scientists are coming to believe what indigenous people have known for
countless generations. It is not the content but the process that
has made the difference in the
sociological and personal
value of this knowledge. A practical implication of this
problem in the classroom is the
challenge to engage the student in
viewing the universe
in a different
way. For example. I teach \Vorld History and Geography,
and maps are an integral tool
in the understanding
of diverse peoples and cultures. One map that I use when
teaching about Mexico is a map
which shows the
various tribes that existed in
the 1S00's. The map clearly shows Baja California and the
interior of Mexico. but
what is different is the orientation. Looking at the map on the wall, the tip of Baja
points to the 1ight.
A conventional map would show the
tip of Baja ,pointing down (south), indicating that
North is the top direction. This particular map, however, was made in
the Nahuatl
traditional way \vith E,lst. the direction of the
rising sun, at the top. This geographical convention, which is common
to most indigenous
peoples, is a reflection in turn
of the cultural and
scientific foundation of
native peoples cultural identity. Indigenous rvrexican teachings refer
to humankind as each individual
being composed ofa
flame of the the spirit of the sun captured in the
earthen
form. The map exercise
is an excavation of the living philosophical values of indigenous
cosmology. In my experience I have found that stuc!ents have a hard time with
this exercise and with maps that !'lip north ancl so uth . Having been exposed to one viewpoint of the v,;orld. the students have been not
educated to
be open to other perspectives.
In an attempt to
explore a pedagogical model based on indigenous philosphy, the Phoenix Union High
School District implemented
a program in the ESL and bilingual Social Studies classrooms called the
Xinachtli Project in 1991. Xinachtli is a Nahuatl
(Mexican) word describing the
momentous transformation of a seed
bursting open to
begin it's life as a plant (Simeon. 1984). The Xinachtli Project has as
it's goal the· reintroduction
of the Nahuatl culture into the community schools of the
Xicano Mexicano community (Enrique, 1991 ).
The pedagogy of the
project is based on the three traditional Mexica principles of:
Tezcmlipoca -
the aspect of memGi)", history Quetzalcoatl
- the aspect of intelligence, consciousness,
and
Huitzilopochtli
- will.
These are principles of human development which are the foundation of the
indigenous M xican (Azteca) spirituality and cosmology which have been preserved intact through five
centuries of European colonization through the discipline of the Danza Azteca.
Carlos Aceves. in his book .;The Xinachtli
Project" refers to these principles in the following way: "learning
is a process of creating and not acquiring, children
clo not acquire but create knowledge"
(Ac eves , 1994).
\\'hat is
indicated. and what the Mecha veterans at the California state conference
sensed hacl transpi reel. was that the content of the educationa.:' process is secondary
to the process. If the process is
constrained by the cultural
prejudices of 500
years of European colonization, where does the ulitmate
reality Iie for Indian people
unwi11 ing to surrender their humanity
in exchange for short
term. individual dividends?
Especiall at this historical juncture. ,vhcn global
tribalism is a growing trend?
VI.
Conclusion
'
Although indigenous
philosophy is not monolithic, there is a
basic pattern of expression which repeats and is echoed across the indigenous cultures. The indigenous cul tu
res are spatially orientated, and
view the world's history as part
of the
creation's history -
still in progress.
Part of this understanding is an
awareness of the cyclical nature of
natural phenomena. It is a philosophy that is rooted in a deep
appreciation for the entire human
evolutionary exp erie nc e, not merely
the relatively recent periods when
history ha: been documented. Based on a precept of appreciation and
ethic of
res pons ibilit y as caretakers of
the earth , life is seen as a dynamic, not static. cxrrcssion. The
inflection of the
teachings of this philosophy attempt
to achieve a sense of 01ientation
and well-being for the learner, the better to participate in
the harmonious development of life itself. For want of a better word in the
English language, indigenous educational philosophy is
spiritually based.
In the
Americas, this philosophy of the people who have a millenial spiritual and
historical connection to this land has been a problem for the Euro-American educational
system. We as indigenous peoples walk across the land,
realizing the earth below our feet is the dust
of our
ancestors. How
shall our philosophy guide us when we are confronted by
. ... - 1
curriculum which only
reinforces the supremacist doctrines of "European Discovery" of the continent? Although
most professional teachers may be
fami Iiar with the ck
bz-tte among European cartographers regarding the naming
of the New \Vorld. hmv many are familiar with even one indigenous naming of the
continent?
Five hundred years
of ignorance is a long time, but it has not been long enough to exterminate the \Vi11 and determination
of the indigenous nations to survive and nourish. The future
is not what it used to be. And the present? Stripping
mvay cultural rrejudices, the indigenous
philosophies are just as modern ancl scientific as those philosophies
grounded in \Vestern reality
a11ci of the Christian persuasion. As both a teacher within the public school
system and a traditional person,
this duality inn uences me in my profession al, personal and spiritual life.
The Indian dances to bring
rain or sings songs to
make the com grow. That these acts me seen ,ls
superstitious goes
against modern scientific
research regarding the theory of the value
of sound vibrations. That Indian people can
communicate ,vi th animals, trees or stones is also seen as supersition. In his book P/1ysics and Philosophy, James Jeans relates the following:
"Space and time arc
inhabited by distinct
individuals, but when
we pass beyond space :rnci time'. rrorn the world of phenomena towards reality, individuality
is replaced by community. When we pass beyond space and time. they
[separate individuals] may perhaps form ingredients of a single continuous
stream of life (Deloria, 1972).
In this idea of
nature. a continuous stream of-life, it is conceivable of learning to hear
trees talk or to
communicate with animals. Scientific
research is now beginning to explore the idea of
communication with dolphins and of understanding the songs of the whale.
In 1054, the
appearance of the Crab Nebula
supernova was recorded by Indians
on the west coast in the form of a rock
paintings and inside a cave in California. These petroglyphs show a bright star next to the
crescent moon. The Chinese and
Japanese also
recorded this event which lasting three weeks was visible to
the entire world. The Western world yet failed to record this natural orcler
of the universe because it contradicted
. their idea of an unchanging un ive rse. The western medieval mind wasn't ready for the Aristotelian idea of truth through observation.
Indigenous
philosophy is based upon observation of nature in all dimensions. It
is an intellectual exercise wherein science and spirituality have
never been separated. My values and practices are rooted in these ancient philosophical
thoughts. Just as modern western man l?oks to the
thinking of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates as being timely today so do I in the
readings and thoughts of the indigenous peoples
thoughout time. The Mexica (Aztec) poet Nczahualcoyotl
related the following:
\Vhat does your mind seek?
\Vhere is your
heart?
If you give
your heart to each and everything, you lead it
nowhere: you destroy your heart.
Can anything be found
on earth? (Leon-Portilla, 1963)
The poet is asking the axiological
question of whether the mind a.rru
heart can
discover real value
here on earth. The
poet also states that without a
destination humans lose
their heart. In Nahuatl, the language of the
Mexica, yol!orl (heart) is derived
from the word ollin (movement), thus heart is
defined as the "dynamic quality inherent in the human being"
(Leon Portilla. 1963). The
last li ne expresses the
thought of whether
it is possible to find anything on earth
capable of satisfying the whole dynamic
being of man. The Mexica understood the
problems involved in establishing values in a changing \vorlcl.
The Mexica also
questioned their religious teachings of the hereafter as shown in the following poem:
Do flowers go
to the region of the dead?
In the Beyond.
arc we dead or
do we
still live?
\Vhere is the source of the light, since that which gives life hides itself? (Leon-Portilla. 1963)
|
.
learn the importance of our li fe struggle. Nezahualcoyotl
in the following poem expresses the f'v1cxica attempt to discover a foundation,
a true basic principal for man and the universe.
Does man possess any truth?
If not. our song is no longer true. Is anything stable and lasting?
\Vhat reaches its aim?
The Mexica philosopher. whose existence is documented in Fray_ Bernardino de Sahagun ·s General History of New Spain, were the ones who composed the songs
in black and red ink. The Nahautl language employs a linguistic method called "clifrasismo", in which two isolated
qualities of an idea are put together to achieve maximum clarity
and precision. Black and
red ink is an example
of a difrasismo. Black
and red ink signify v.1 riti ng or wisdom. In xochirl, ;n cuicatl: flower and song means poetry.
the only truth on earth. Another
example is in topan, in
mictlan: what is above us, the
region of the dead.
This expresses the idea of the
metaphysical beyond or the unknown
(Leon-Portilla, 1963). The Mexica
philosophic thought is not attributed to isolated thinkers, with the exception
of Nezahuacoyotl. bur rather it is grounded in the ancient schools
directed by the \vise men .
Indigenous
philosophy holds that all forms of life have their own purpose. There is
strength in diversity.
Shooter, a Sioux Indian
explained this idea as follows: " Animals nnd
plants are taught
by Wakan Tanka what they are to clo.
\Vakan Tanka teaches the birds to make nests......All birds, even those or the same srccies. arc not alike,
and it is the same with animals. or human
beings" (Deloria. 1972). Existence in creation is the recognition that in
difference there is strength. This
message is very timely in today's world in which our
rainforest destruction rate rose
from thirty million acres a year
to forty million in the
ten year period
between 1980
and 1996 (Joyce, 1994). Consider the following
statistics: of all prescription
drugs one-fourth contain a useful plant ingredient, 121
prescription drugs around the world ar-e mad e from higher
plants--half of
the
plants in these medicines are from the tropics and three-fourths of these
were discovered because they were already used by
indigenous herbalists (Joyce, 1994).
Harvard faculty members were asked by Harvard
Magazine to name the world's single most pressing problem. The
response of Edward 0.
Wilson was as fol
lows: "The worst thing
that can happen--will happen--is not energy depletion. economic collapse, limited
nuclear war, or
conquest by a totalitarian government. As terrible as these
catastrophes would be for us, they
can be repaired
within a few generations. The process ongoing in the
1980's that will take millions
of years to conect is the
loss of genetic and species diversity by the destruction of natural
habitats. This is the folly our descendants are least I ikely to forgive
us" (Joyce, 1994). Wilson equates the destruction
of the tropics to "bLirning a Renaissance painting to. cook dinner·· (Joyce. 1994 ).
Vine
Deloria states in his book God is Red that our environmental crisis is due to the "rejection of creation as a living ecosystem and
the concept of nature as depraved and an object for
exploitation" (Deloria, 1972). Indigenous philosophy sees man _and the land as one, with the land
becoming the final resting place of man. We treat the land with respect because
when we walk upon the earth we come in contact
with those who came before us. Indian
people have a concept of the seven generations.
That means that we must
preserve and take care of the earth for the next seven generations: we borrow the land from the unborn.
How does th is kn ow led ge of i ndi ge nous phi
losoph y
affect my classroom prac
t ices ? I bring m y va lu es into the classroom when I decide what to teach. what I will emphasize. the viewpoints I wil1
present. The Bering Strait theory is one example. Though
widely accepted, the indigenous peoples
have th ei
r own distinct theory and documentation
regarding the migration pa tt e rns that
h a ve populated the hemisphere.
The Indian
v iew po i n t is a ll o
\vecl expr ess ion in my classroom, not just through read
i ngs , s peakers a n ci ass ig nm e n ts but I how I relate
to m y stud ents , my demea nor. m y e xp e r ie nces :rncl my pe
rsona l reflec
ti ons of wh at I think is important.
The neglect of th e I nd ian v iewp oint is related in th e following story
by the
Sioux physician Charles
Eastman. A missionary was
instructing a group of Indians about the truths of his holy relig ion. He recounted the
creation story and the fall of mnn. The Indians listened attentively and thanked
him for his story. One in turn started to relate the story about
the origin of maize. The
disgusted missionary offended by the story told the Indians that his story was
the sacred truth and theirs was but fable.
The Indian replied that they had believed his stories so why would he
not give credit to theirs?
Most of my prescribed
\Vorld History curriculum is
related to the history of Eur ope
. N on-E ur opean countries
are described and related to in terms of their
relationship to Europe as if they achieved nothing
until they
fonned a relationship with the west. Our textbooks
fail to acknowledge the experience
of mankind as a whole. \Vorld
history is related in terms of "Western
man's conquest of the remainder of the world
and his
subsequent rise
to technological sophistication" (Deloria,
1972): My goal is to relate to my students the
achievements of mankind and to get them to see a world viewpoint and not just the
western viewpoint of the world.
Stonehenge is a virtual
computer with its
usage and meaning
having eluded us: the Aztec cllcnclar
stone is also an ancient computer with its
knowledge now just being
rediscovered. The debate rages
on regarding how the ancient
Egyptians construcreci the
most massive structures
on earth. The world is filled with ancient ruins
that will probably
still stand long after
the buildings downtown
are in rubble. We
could not duplicate these structures if \Ve wished to do so. As I write, the newly drafted World
History standards for the 21st century
are being criticized
because too much emphasis is
placecl on multicultui·alism, and too little on the true important events
according to
Western tradition. Pat Buchanan in a recent
editorial questioned the importance
of students knowing
who Mali's Mansa Musa was.
In 1980. when Edward 0. \Vi Ison made his analysis of the
world's most pressing problem. the species of the Earth were disappearing at an
alarming rate. Four hundred times hster than any time in the recent past.
Species extinctions have been reported by biologists around the world.
Christopher Joyce in his book
Earthly Goods states it very
elo·quently
when he writes "We are abandoning fellow
living things for a
manufactured dream ,vorld, as ir we could grasp immortality by replacing what is born,
grows, and dies with that which never ages (Joyce, 1994).
In this present historical
context, v,1 e prepare our youth
for the challenges to come. Ecological
crisises have come to be generally accepted as nuisances in the pell
mell advance into the global market, which requires a global extraction process for raw materials. From
where comes the raw materials and the labor to sustain the foundation of this
emminently consumptive society? Are
we to superstitiously believe in the doctrine that technology
will co1-rect itself?
In the indigenous
traditional worldview, there exists a concept of justice. In
traditional i\1exica teachings, the Sixth Sun which is now dawning is called
the Sun of Justice. Based on the harmonic principle of equilibrium in nature
and the reciprocal nature of
relationships which defines our
lives, it is a sun ,,vhose time has come.
VI. References
Aceves, Carlos & J..A. ( 1994 ). The Xinachtli Project- -A Manifesto of Mvthic
Peda 2:o y. ( an u np(1bl ished manuscript).
Caduto. Michael J . & Bruchac. Joseph. (1988). Keepers
of the Earth- Native Ame1ican
Stories and Environmental Activities
for Children. Fulcrum, Inc. Golden. Colorado.
Deloria, Vine Jr. (1973). God is Red. Grosset & Dunlap, New York, NY Enrique. Tupac. ( 1994). The Xicano Paradi£m. (an
unpublished
communique)
Enrique, 'Tupac. (1991 ). Xinachtli Project. Phoenix Union High School District
publisher.
Johansen, Bruce & :f\1aestas, Roberto. (1979). Wasi 'chu- The Continuing Indian Wars . Monthly Review
Press. New York, NY.
Johanson, Donald C. (1981). Lucv. The Beginning of Humankind . Simon &
Schuster New York. NY.
Joyce. Christopher. ( 1994). Eanhlv Goods. Med icine-Hunting in the Rainforest.
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